Enhancing Bioactive Compound Yield from  Chromolaena odorata  L. through Microwave-Assisted Extraction: Influence of Solvent Type and Extraction Kinetics

Darnengsih Darnengsih; Hikmatun Ni'mah; Mahfud Mahfud

doi:10.22146/ijc.109163

Enhancing Bioactive Compound Yield from Chromolaena odorata L. through Microwave-Assisted Extraction: Influence of Solvent Type and Extraction Kinetics

https://doi.org/10.22146/ijc.109163

Darnengsih Darnengsih⁽¹⁾, Hikmatun Ni'mah⁽²⁾, Mahfud Mahfud^(3*)

(1) Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Arif Rahman Hakim, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
(2) Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Arif Rahman Hakim, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
(3) Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Arif Rahman Hakim, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
(*) Corresponding Author

Abstract

Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was applied to Chromolaena odorata leaves to quantify solvent effects and optimize recovery of bioactive constituents. Ethanol-based MAE was optimized with a Box–Behnken design across microwave power (150–450 W), feed-to-solvent ratio (0.10–0.20 g/mL), and time (20–180 min), with 17 runs including five center points. Optimal conditions converged at 300 W, F/S 0.10 g/mL, and 180 min, yielding 3.38% (w/w). Kinetic profiles for ethanol and water were fitted to six models; the Power-law offered the best agreement, yielding the highest R² values (ethanol: 0.9962; water: 0.9922) and the lowest RMSE values (ethanol: 0.0195; water: 0.0102). The GC-MS showed solvent-selective extraction: ethanol-enriched terpenoids (55.83%) and phenolics (13.58%), whereas flavonoids were only detected in water extracts. Collectively, response-surface-guided MAE at moderate power provides a selective route to enrich high-value constituents from and a simple kinetic descriptor for process control, supporting greener and potentially scalable extraction for downstream applications.

Keywords

microwave-assisted extraction; Chromolaena odorata; Box–Behnken design; extraction kinetics; bioactive

Full Text:

Full Text PDF

References

[1] Vijayaraghavan, K., Rajkumar, J., and Seyed, M.A., 2018, Phytochemical screening, free radical scavenging and antimicrobial potential of Chromolaena odorata leaf extracts against pathogenic bacterium in wound infections– A multispectrum perspective, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 15, 103–112.

[2] Zahara, M., 2019, Description of Chromolaena odorata L. R.M King and H. Robinson as medicinal plant: A review, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 506 (1), 012022.

[3] Zulkefli, N., Che Zahari, C.N., Sayuti, N.H., Kamarudin, A.A., Saad, N., Hamezah, H.S., Bunawan, H., Baharum, S.N., Mediani, A., Ahmed, Q.U., Ismail, A.F., and Sarian, M.N., 2023, Flavonoids as potential wound-healing molecules: Emphasis on pathways perspective, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24 (5), 4607.

[4] Heiss, E.H., Tran, T.V.A., Zimmermann, K., Schwaiger, S., Vouk, C., Mayerhofer, B., Malainer, C., Atanasov, A.G., Stuppner, H., and Dirsch, V.M., 2014, Identification of chromomoric acid C-I as an Nrf2 activator in Chromolaena odorata, J. Nat. Prod., 77 (3), 503–508.

[5] Nkechinyere, M.O.K., and Chioma, O.O.M., 2020, Antibacterial activities and phytochemical analysis of Chromolaena odorata leaves on methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Am. J. Biomed. Life Sci., 8 (2), 33–40.

[6] Eze, F.N., and Jayeoye, T.J., 2021, Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed): A natural reservoir of bioactive compounds with potent anti-fibrillogenic, antioxidative, and cytocompatible properties, Biomed. Pharmacother., 141, 111811.

[7] Handayani, D.P., Kusuma, H.S., Timotius, D., Sarastika, T., Mahfud, M., and Darmokoesoemo, H., 2024, Extraction of Centella asiatica herb using microwave-assisted solvent extraction: Optimization of crude extract using Box-Behnken design, Green Anal. Chem., 11, 100146.

[8] Tandi, J., Widodo, A., Yanuarty, R., Handayani, T.W., and Kanan, M., 2024, Phytochemicals, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities of ethanol extract of Coleus atropurpureus Benth. leaves, Rasayan J. Chem., 17 (2), 487–492.

[9] Mahfud, M., Nabila, A.R., and Variyana, Y., 2025, Developing a kinetic model for microwave hydro diffusion and gravity with steam flow on extraction of essential oils from Amomum compactum seeds, Rasayan J. Chem., 181, 52–60.

[10] Wang, Y., Li, R., Jiang, Z.T., Tan, J., Tang, S.H., Li, T.T., Liang, L.L., He, H.J., Liu, Y.M., Li, J.T., and Zhang, X.C., 2018, Green and solvent-free simultaneous ultrasonic-microwave assisted extraction of essential oil from white and black peppers, Ind. Crops Prod., 114, 164–172.

[11] Alara, O.R., and Abdurahman, N.H., 2019, Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolics from Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces: Kinetic modelling and process intensification, Ind. Crops Prod., 137, 528–535.

[12] Alara, O.R., and Abdurahman, N.H., 2019, Kinetics studies on effects of extraction techniques on bioactive compounds from Vernonia cinerea leaf, J. Food Sci. Technol., 56 (2), 580–588.

[13] Strati, I.F., and Oreopoulou, V., 2011, Effect of extraction parameters on the carotenoid recovery from tomato waste, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 46 (1), 23–29.

[14] Kusuma, H.S., and Mahfud, M., 2017, Comparison of kinetic models of oil extraction from sandalwood by microwave-assisted hydrodistillation, Int. Food Res. J., 24 (4), 1697–1702.

[15] Chen, Y., Xu, F., Pang, M., Jin, X., Lv, H., Li, Z., and Lee, M., 2022, Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation extraction based on microwave-assisted preparation of deep eutectic solvents coupled with GC-MS for analysis of essential oils from clove buds, Sustainable Chem. Pharm., 27, 100695.

[16] Isnaeni, N., Saefumillah, A., and Cahyana, A.H., 2022, Preliminary study of isolation and purification mitragynine from kratom leaves, Mater. Sci. Forum, 1061, 173–179.

[17] Bungsu, M.A., Tahir, M.M., Zainal, Z., and Rahmaniar, R., 2023, Characterization of the addition of crude extract of yellow pumpkin (Cucurbita maschata) as a natural coloring agent in seaweed wet noodles, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci., 1241 (1), 012085.

[18] Giacometti, J., Bursać Kovačević, D., Putnik, P., Gabrić, D., Bilušić, T., Krešić, G., Stulić, V., Barba, F.J., Chemat, F., Barbosa-Cánovas, G., and Režek Jambrak, A., 2018, Extraction of bioactive compounds and essential oils from mediterranean herbs by conventional and green innovative techniques: A review, Food Res. Int., 113, 245–262.

[19] Variyana, Y., Fitria, M., Muchammad, R.S.C., and Mahfud, M., 2024, Enhancing Indian onion (Allium Cepa L. var. aggregatum) extraction by microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) method: Parametric study and optimization using FCCD design, Results Eng., 24, 103294.

[20] Bai, Y., Ming, Z., Xing, Y.G., Guo, W., Xu, Q., and Rao, Y., 2012, Effects of freezing and thawing on the extraction yields of polysaccharides from corn pollen, Adv. Mater. Res., 518-523, 3951–3954.

[21] Barati, M., Barough, M.S., Pak, F., Semnani, V., Pashaei, M., and Kokhaei, P., 2018, Optimized storage methods of RNA extraction from formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissue, Middle East J. Rehabil. Health Stud., 5 (2), 63356.

[22] Monton, C., and Luprasong, C., 2019, Effect of temperature and duration time of maceration on nitrate content of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.: Circumscribed central composite design and method validation, Int. J. Food Sci., 2019 (1), 1281635.

[23] Kusuma, H.S., Altway, A., and Mahfud, M., 2019, An optimization of microwave hydrodistillation extraction of vetiver oil using a face-centered central composite design, J. Chem. Technol. Metall., 54 (4), 803–809.

[24] Milić, P.S., Rajković, K.M., Stamenković, O.S., Bekrić, D.M., Arsić-Arsenijević, V., Jovanović, P.D., and Veljković, V.B., 2018, Statistical modeling and optimization of classical and ultrasound-assisted extraction of the minerals from Galium mollugo L. by response surface methodology and genetic algorithm, J. Food Process. Preserv., 42 (3), e13552.

[25] Myers, R.H., Montgomery, D.C., and Anderson-Cook, C.M., 2016, Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments, John Wiley and Sons., Hoboken, NJ, US.

[26] Baker-Fales, M., Chen, T.Y., Bhalode, P., Wang, Z., and Vlachos, D.G., 2023, Microwave enhancement of extractions and reactions in liquid-liquid biphasic systems, Chem. Eng. J., 476, 146552.

[27] Haqyana, H., Tania, V.F.W., Suyadi, A.M., Kusuma, H.S., Altway, A., and Mahfud, M., 2020, Kinetic study in the extraction of essential oil from clove (Syzgium aromaticum) stem using microwave hydrodistillation, Moroccan J. Chem., 8 (S1), 64–71.

[28] Yousuf, B., Panesar, P.S., Chopra, H., and Gul, K., 2017, Characterization of secondary metabolites from various solvent extracts of saffron floral waste, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. B, 87 (1), 89–100.

[29] Huang, Y., Kwan, K.K., Leung, K.W., Wang, H., Kong, X.P., Dong, T.T., and Tsim, K.W., 2018, The extracts and major compounds derived from astragali radix alter mitochondrial bioenergetics in cultured cardiomyocytes: Comparison of various polar solvents and compounds, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19 (6), 1574

[30] Nurcholis, W., Alfadzrin, R., Izzati, N., Arianti, R., Vinnai, B.Á., Sabri, F., Kristóf, E., and Artika, I.M., 2022, Effects of methods and durations of extraction on total flavonoid and phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of Java cardamom (Amomum compactum Soland Ex Maton) fruit, Plants, 11 (17), 2221.

[31] Kusuma, H.S., and Mahfud, M., 2017, The extraction of essential oils from patchouli leaves (Pogostemon cablin Benth) using a microwave air-hydrodistillation method as a new green technique, RSC Adv., 7 (3), 1336–1347.

[32] Srivastav, Y., Thakur, G., and Tiwari, S., 2024, Antimicrobial potential activity of onion (Allium cepa) waste extracts prepared in different solvent systems, J. Multidiscip. Res., 4 (2), 14–27.

[33] Alara, O.R., Abdurahman, N.H., and Olalere, O.A., 2018, Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids and antioxidants from Vernonia amygdalina leaf using response surface methodology, Food Bioprod. Process., 107, 36–48.

[34] Wightman, E.L., Jackson, P.A., Forster, J., Khan, J., Wiebe, J.C., Gericke, N., and Kennedy, D.O., 2020, Acute effects of a polyphenol-rich leaf extract of placebo-controlled crossover study, Nutrients, 12 (8), 2194.

[35] Rahmi, S., Rosidah, R., Widyawati, T., and Sumaiyah, S., 2022, The effect of liposomes ethanol extract of tekelan leaves (Chromolaena Odorata L.) on the SOD and MDA level in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced diabetic rats, Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci., 10 (A), 1310–1314.

[36] Omonije, O.O., Saidu, A.N., and Muhammad, H.L., 2019, Anti-diabetic activities of Chromolaena odorata methanol root extract and its attenuation effect on diabetic induced hepatorenal impairments in rats, Clin. Phytosci., 5 (1), 23.

[37] Boudjeko, T., Megnekou, R., Woguia, A.L., Kegne, F.M., Ngomoyogoli, J.E.K., Tchapoum, C.D.N., and Koum, O., 2015, Antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of polysaccharides from Allanblackia floribunda Oliv stem bark and Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and H.E. Robins leaves, BMC Res. Notes, 8 (1), 759.

[38] Sangnim, T., Meeboon, P., Phongsewalak, P., Prasongdee, P., Sriamornsak, P., Singh, I., Manmuan, S., and Huanbutta, K., 2022, Development and evaluation of liquid plaster loaded with Chromolaena odorata leaf extract endowed with several beneficial properties to wound healing, Gels, 8 (2), 72.

[39] Oraekei, D.I., Okonkwo, F.E., Nnamani, M.E., Chukwuka, B.U., Obidiegwu, O.C., and Adione, N.M., 2023, Evaluation of the anti-oxidation and wound healing activities of Chromolaena odorata methanol leaf extract using rat model, World J. Biol. Pharm. Health Sci., 16 (3), 42–54.

[40] Omonije, O.O., Saidu, A.N., and Muhammad, H.L., 2020, Antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects of methanolic root extract of Chromolaena odorata in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, Iran. J. Toxicol., 14 (2), 63–70.

[41] Xu, D., Hu, M.J., Wang, Y.Q., and Cui, Y.L., 2019, Antioxidant activities of quercetin and its complexes for medicinal application, Molecules, 24 (6), 1123.

[42] Bahmani, M., Saki, K., Shahsavari, S., Rafieian‐Kopaei, M., Sepahvand, R., and Adineh, A., 2015, Identification of medicinal plants effective in infectious diseases in Urmia, northwest of Iran, Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed., 5 (10), 858–864.

[43] Nwosu, D.C., Nwosu, M.I., and Aguwa, U.S., 2022, The effects of sub-chronic administration of the ethanolic extract of Chromolaena odorata leaves on the immune system and spleen of male Wistar rats, J. Complementary Altern. Med. Res., 19 (4), 1–10.

[44] Yewale, S., Farash, Z., Kulkarni, S., Palghadmal, S., Athawale, N., Sawant, L., Bhope, S., and Padmanabhan, S., 2022, Effect of solvent polarity on extraction yield of total flavonoids with special emphasis to glabridin from Glycyrrhiza glabra roots, Fabad J. Pharm. Sci., 1 (47), 1–12.

[45] Omokhua-Uyi, A.G., Abdalla, M.A., Leonard, C.M., Aro, A., Uyi, O.O., Van Staden, J., and McGaw, L.J., 2020, Flavonoids isolated from the South African weed Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) have pharmacological activity against uropathogens, BMC Complementary Med. Ther., 20 (1), 233.

[46] Koffi, A.M.H., Yah, N.M., Soko, D.F., Koffi, Y.O., Tonessia, D.C., and Atta, T.H.D., 2021, Behavior of Dioscorea alata slices treated with aqueous extracts of Ocimum gratissimum and Chromolaena odorata before inoculation by Colletotrichum sp. in Daloa, Côte d’Ivoire, Int. J. Plant Soil Sci., 33 (20), 84–93.