Examining Israel's Attacks on Abrahamic Heritages in Palestine: Theological and Legal Perspectives
Main Article Content
Abstract
The Palestine-Israel conflict is one of the most complex humanitarian conflicts in modern history. Israel's attacks on Palestine have caused devastating impact not only on human lives but also on historical, cultural, and religious heritages, including Abrahamic heritages, which has precious value to Jews, Christians, and Muslim communities. This article explores the doctrines of Abrahamic religions toward the protection of cultural and religious heritage, the international humanitarian law regulations regarding the protection of cultural and religious heritage during armed conflicts, and the strategies to restore damaged cultural and religious heritage. This article aims to raise public awareness regarding the importance of Abrahamic heritages in Palestine as an integral component of human patrimony and civilization. The literature study method is used to understand the theological and legal foundations underlying the importance of safeguarding and preserving cultural and religious heritage, as well as finding solutions and practical recommendations for the preservation of cultural and religious heritage in conflict areas.
Article Details
Section
Articles
References
Books:
Abujidi, N. “Weaponised Heritage: Urbicide by Construction and Destruction in Nablus, Palestine.” In Zarandona, J.A.G. et al (eds). The Routledge Handbook of Heritage Destruction. London: Routledge, 2023.
Crowe, J. & K. Weston-Scheuber. Principles of International Humanitarian Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013.
Hammami, F. “Heritage Necropolitics and the Capture of Hebron: The logic of closure, fear, humiliation and elimination.” In Ristic, M. & S. Frank (eds). Urban Heritage in Divided Cities Contested Pasts. London: Routledge, 2019.
Henckaerts, J.-M. & L. Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law Volume I: Rules. International Committee of the Red Cross, 2005.
Isaac, R.K. “Cultural heritage in Palestine: challenges and opportunities.” In Seyfi, Siamak & C. Michael Hall (eds). Cultural and Heritage Tourism in the Middle East and North Africa: Complexities, Management and Practices. London: Routledge, 2020.
Jong, P.d. Theology in Conservation. University of York, 2020.
Kimmerling, B. & J.S. Migdal. The Palestinian People: A History. Harvard University Press, 2003.
Lovat, T. & R. Crotty. Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islam’s Special Role in Restoring Convivencia. Springer, 2015.
Taha, H. & G.v.d. Kooij. “Community Archaeology at Tell Balata, Palestine.” In Bonnie, Rick et al (eds). Living Communities and Their Archaeologies in the Middle East. Helsinki University Press, 2023.
Tamer, G. & C. Rachik. “Epilogue.” In Rachik, C. & G. Tamer (eds). The Concept of Human Rights in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hanns-Seidel-Stifung, 2023.
Journals:
Abuarkub, M. & F.M.S. Al-Zwainy. “Architectural and Historical Development in Palestine.” International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology 9, no. 9 (2018): 1217-1233. https://iaeme.com/Home/article_id/IJCIET_09_09_118.
Al-Houdalieh, S.H. “Archaeology Programs at the Palestinian Universities: Reality and Challenges.” Archaeologies 5, no. 1 (2009): 161-183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11759-009-9097-9.
Al-Houdalieh, S.H. “Political Crisis and Palestine's Cultural Heritage: A Case Study from the Khirbet el-Lauz Site in Area C.” Journal of Field Archaeology 34, no. 3 (2009): 338-350. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608590.
Alshweiky, R. & Z.G. Ünal. “An approach to risk management and preservation of cultural heritage in multi identity and multi managed sites: Al-Haram Al-Ibrahimi/Abraham's Tombs of the Patriarchs in Al-Khalil/Hebron.” Journal of Cultural Heritage 20 (2016) 709-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.02.014.
Amro, D.K. & S. Ammar. “Rehabilitation of Heritage Buildings in Conflict Zones: A Case Study of Al-Khader Library in Gaza Strip and Its Impact on Sustainable Development.” Buildings 14, no. 9 (2024): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092759.
Balakrishnan, Ar. V. & Narayana K.A. “Establishing the Cultural Significance of Heritage Places Through Value Assessment.” SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering 11 (2024), no. 12: 52-63. https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V11I12P105.
Bishop, E.F.F. “Hebron, City of Abraham, the Friend of God.” Journal of Bible and Religion 16, no. 2 (1948): 94-99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1457287.
Boda, G. “One Hundred Years of Protecting the Cultural Heritage: The Leber Code (1854) – The Hague Convention (1954).” Plural 8, no. 1 (2020): 9-16. https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85091380907&origin=scopusAI#.
Fabian, K.P. “The Israeli-Palestine Conflict: How to Cut the Gordian Knot?” India Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2002): 39-56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45073398.
Fabris, A.L. “Military Necessity under the 1954 Hague Convention.” Santander Art and Culture Law Review 2, no. 1 (2015): 275-290. https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSR.15.023.4521.
Fernández-Álvarez, Ó. et al. “Religious Heritage: Reconciliation between Spirituality and Cultural Concerns.” Rupkatha Journal 14, no. 4 (2022): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.29.
Mansour, C. “Reflections on the War on Gaza.” Journal of Palestine Studies 38, no. 4 (2009): 91-95. https://doi.org/10.1525/jps.2009.38.4.91.
Marín, A.B. “Al Jalīl Al Raḥmān y el Castillo de San Abraham. Una aproximación a Palestina medieval desde la microhistoria y la historia local.” Anaquel de Estudios Árabes 34, no. 2 (2023): 251-271. https://doi.org/10.5209/anqe.87310.
Miller, D.L. “Polytheism and Archetypal Theology: A Discussion.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 40, no. 4 (1972): 513-520. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1460899.
Oktavina, W. et al. “Israeli-Palestinian Conflict After Hamas Attacks October 7, 2023 (Framing Voa Indonesia and Deutsche Welle Indonesia).” Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi 5, no. 3 (2024): 939-948. https://doi.org/10.59141/jist.v5i3.944.
Tóth, K.B. “The Jewish Cemetery as Jewish and Non-Jewish Local Cultural Heritage in a Rural Hungarian Settlement.” Acta Ethnographica Hungarica 68, no. 2 (2024): 437-479. https://doi.org/10.1556/022.2023.00024.
Thesis:
Wolff, K.A. “Bal Tashchit: the Jewish prohibition against needless destruction.” Doctoral Thesis, Leiden University, 2009.
Legislation:
United Nations. 1948. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.”
United Nations. 1966. “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.”
United Nations. 1966. “International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.”
United Nations. 1977. “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1).”
United Nations. 1977. “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II).”
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1954. “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.”
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1972. “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.”
Others:
Al Jazeera. “Al-Aqsa Mosque: Five things you need to know.” May 29, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/12/6/al-aqsa-mosque-five-things-you-need-to-know.
Al Jazeera. “Israeli forces attack Palestinian worshippers at Al-Aqsa Mosque.” September 17, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/17/israeli-forces-attack-palestinian-worshippers-at-al-aqsa-mosque.
Amiry, Suad & Farhat Muhawi. “The Rehabilitation of Historic Centers and Buildings in the occupied Palestinian territories.” Riwaq: Center for Architectural Conservation (2008). https://www.riwaq.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/RIWAQ%27s%20Policy%20Document.pdf.
Deutsche Welle. “UNESCO puts Hebron on its danger list.” July 07, 2017. https://www.dw.com/en/unesco-puts-hebron-on-its-world-heritage-in-danger-list/a-39601093.
ICOMOS Secretariat. “Research and Conservation of St. Bartholomew Old Anglican Church Building, Wusasa, Zaria, Nigeria.” April 26, 2024. https://icomos.ng/research-and-conservation-of-st-bartholomew-old-anglican-church-building-wusasa-zaria-nigeria/.
Independent Catholic News. “Ethiopia: Restoration to begin on Lalibela Rock Churches.” February 25, 2018. https://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/34406.
Kencana, Dian. “95 Percent Gaza’s Cultural Heritage Crumbles Under Israeli Attacks.” SEA Today, February 6, 2025. https://news.seatoday.com/dian-kencana/12481/95-percent-gaza%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-crumbles-under-israeli-attacks.
Middle East Monitor. “Israel targeting Gaza's history, destroying ancient mosques, churches.” December 8, 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20231208-israel-targeting-gazas-history-destroying-ancient-mosques-churches/.
Middle East Monitor. “Report: Israel destroyed 226 archaeological sites in Gaza.” February 7, 2025. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20250207-report-israel-destroyed-226-archaeological-sites-in-gaza/.
Pelletier, Mary. “Jesus’s tomb has been restored in Jerusalem.” Apollo, March 28, 2017. https://www.apollo-magazine.com/jesuss-tomb-has-been-restored-in-jerusalem/.
Saber, Indlieb Farazi. “A ‘cultural genocide’: Which of Gaza’s heritage sites have been destroyed?” Al Jazeera, January 14, 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/14/a-cultural-genocide-which-of-gazas-heritage-sites-have-been-destroyed.
Stennett, Aidan. “The Role of UNESCO in the Designation of World Heritage Sites, with Particular Reference to the Giant’s Causeway.” Research Paper, Northern Ireland Assembly (2007): 5. https://archive.niassembly.gov.uk/environment/2007mandate/Research/0710UNESCO.pdf.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “World Heritage List.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/.
United Nations Environment Programme. “Environmental impact of the conflict in Gaza: Preliminary assessment of environmental impacts.” https://www.un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/environmental_impact_conflict_Gaza.pdf.
United Nations Treaty Collection. “Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.” https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002800fece0.
United Nations Treaty Collection. “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280145bac.
Abujidi, N. “Weaponised Heritage: Urbicide by Construction and Destruction in Nablus, Palestine.” In Zarandona, J.A.G. et al (eds). The Routledge Handbook of Heritage Destruction. London: Routledge, 2023.
Crowe, J. & K. Weston-Scheuber. Principles of International Humanitarian Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013.
Hammami, F. “Heritage Necropolitics and the Capture of Hebron: The logic of closure, fear, humiliation and elimination.” In Ristic, M. & S. Frank (eds). Urban Heritage in Divided Cities Contested Pasts. London: Routledge, 2019.
Henckaerts, J.-M. & L. Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law Volume I: Rules. International Committee of the Red Cross, 2005.
Isaac, R.K. “Cultural heritage in Palestine: challenges and opportunities.” In Seyfi, Siamak & C. Michael Hall (eds). Cultural and Heritage Tourism in the Middle East and North Africa: Complexities, Management and Practices. London: Routledge, 2020.
Jong, P.d. Theology in Conservation. University of York, 2020.
Kimmerling, B. & J.S. Migdal. The Palestinian People: A History. Harvard University Press, 2003.
Lovat, T. & R. Crotty. Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islam’s Special Role in Restoring Convivencia. Springer, 2015.
Taha, H. & G.v.d. Kooij. “Community Archaeology at Tell Balata, Palestine.” In Bonnie, Rick et al (eds). Living Communities and Their Archaeologies in the Middle East. Helsinki University Press, 2023.
Tamer, G. & C. Rachik. “Epilogue.” In Rachik, C. & G. Tamer (eds). The Concept of Human Rights in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hanns-Seidel-Stifung, 2023.
Journals:
Abuarkub, M. & F.M.S. Al-Zwainy. “Architectural and Historical Development in Palestine.” International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology 9, no. 9 (2018): 1217-1233. https://iaeme.com/Home/article_id/IJCIET_09_09_118.
Al-Houdalieh, S.H. “Archaeology Programs at the Palestinian Universities: Reality and Challenges.” Archaeologies 5, no. 1 (2009): 161-183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11759-009-9097-9.
Al-Houdalieh, S.H. “Political Crisis and Palestine's Cultural Heritage: A Case Study from the Khirbet el-Lauz Site in Area C.” Journal of Field Archaeology 34, no. 3 (2009): 338-350. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608590.
Alshweiky, R. & Z.G. Ünal. “An approach to risk management and preservation of cultural heritage in multi identity and multi managed sites: Al-Haram Al-Ibrahimi/Abraham's Tombs of the Patriarchs in Al-Khalil/Hebron.” Journal of Cultural Heritage 20 (2016) 709-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.02.014.
Amro, D.K. & S. Ammar. “Rehabilitation of Heritage Buildings in Conflict Zones: A Case Study of Al-Khader Library in Gaza Strip and Its Impact on Sustainable Development.” Buildings 14, no. 9 (2024): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092759.
Balakrishnan, Ar. V. & Narayana K.A. “Establishing the Cultural Significance of Heritage Places Through Value Assessment.” SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering 11 (2024), no. 12: 52-63. https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V11I12P105.
Bishop, E.F.F. “Hebron, City of Abraham, the Friend of God.” Journal of Bible and Religion 16, no. 2 (1948): 94-99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1457287.
Boda, G. “One Hundred Years of Protecting the Cultural Heritage: The Leber Code (1854) – The Hague Convention (1954).” Plural 8, no. 1 (2020): 9-16. https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85091380907&origin=scopusAI#.
Fabian, K.P. “The Israeli-Palestine Conflict: How to Cut the Gordian Knot?” India Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2002): 39-56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45073398.
Fabris, A.L. “Military Necessity under the 1954 Hague Convention.” Santander Art and Culture Law Review 2, no. 1 (2015): 275-290. https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSR.15.023.4521.
Fernández-Álvarez, Ó. et al. “Religious Heritage: Reconciliation between Spirituality and Cultural Concerns.” Rupkatha Journal 14, no. 4 (2022): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.29.
Mansour, C. “Reflections on the War on Gaza.” Journal of Palestine Studies 38, no. 4 (2009): 91-95. https://doi.org/10.1525/jps.2009.38.4.91.
Marín, A.B. “Al Jalīl Al Raḥmān y el Castillo de San Abraham. Una aproximación a Palestina medieval desde la microhistoria y la historia local.” Anaquel de Estudios Árabes 34, no. 2 (2023): 251-271. https://doi.org/10.5209/anqe.87310.
Miller, D.L. “Polytheism and Archetypal Theology: A Discussion.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 40, no. 4 (1972): 513-520. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1460899.
Oktavina, W. et al. “Israeli-Palestinian Conflict After Hamas Attacks October 7, 2023 (Framing Voa Indonesia and Deutsche Welle Indonesia).” Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi 5, no. 3 (2024): 939-948. https://doi.org/10.59141/jist.v5i3.944.
Tóth, K.B. “The Jewish Cemetery as Jewish and Non-Jewish Local Cultural Heritage in a Rural Hungarian Settlement.” Acta Ethnographica Hungarica 68, no. 2 (2024): 437-479. https://doi.org/10.1556/022.2023.00024.
Thesis:
Wolff, K.A. “Bal Tashchit: the Jewish prohibition against needless destruction.” Doctoral Thesis, Leiden University, 2009.
Legislation:
United Nations. 1948. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.”
United Nations. 1966. “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.”
United Nations. 1966. “International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.”
United Nations. 1977. “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1).”
United Nations. 1977. “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II).”
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1954. “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.”
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1972. “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.”
Others:
Al Jazeera. “Al-Aqsa Mosque: Five things you need to know.” May 29, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/12/6/al-aqsa-mosque-five-things-you-need-to-know.
Al Jazeera. “Israeli forces attack Palestinian worshippers at Al-Aqsa Mosque.” September 17, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/17/israeli-forces-attack-palestinian-worshippers-at-al-aqsa-mosque.
Amiry, Suad & Farhat Muhawi. “The Rehabilitation of Historic Centers and Buildings in the occupied Palestinian territories.” Riwaq: Center for Architectural Conservation (2008). https://www.riwaq.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/RIWAQ%27s%20Policy%20Document.pdf.
Deutsche Welle. “UNESCO puts Hebron on its danger list.” July 07, 2017. https://www.dw.com/en/unesco-puts-hebron-on-its-world-heritage-in-danger-list/a-39601093.
ICOMOS Secretariat. “Research and Conservation of St. Bartholomew Old Anglican Church Building, Wusasa, Zaria, Nigeria.” April 26, 2024. https://icomos.ng/research-and-conservation-of-st-bartholomew-old-anglican-church-building-wusasa-zaria-nigeria/.
Independent Catholic News. “Ethiopia: Restoration to begin on Lalibela Rock Churches.” February 25, 2018. https://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/34406.
Kencana, Dian. “95 Percent Gaza’s Cultural Heritage Crumbles Under Israeli Attacks.” SEA Today, February 6, 2025. https://news.seatoday.com/dian-kencana/12481/95-percent-gaza%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-crumbles-under-israeli-attacks.
Middle East Monitor. “Israel targeting Gaza's history, destroying ancient mosques, churches.” December 8, 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20231208-israel-targeting-gazas-history-destroying-ancient-mosques-churches/.
Middle East Monitor. “Report: Israel destroyed 226 archaeological sites in Gaza.” February 7, 2025. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20250207-report-israel-destroyed-226-archaeological-sites-in-gaza/.
Pelletier, Mary. “Jesus’s tomb has been restored in Jerusalem.” Apollo, March 28, 2017. https://www.apollo-magazine.com/jesuss-tomb-has-been-restored-in-jerusalem/.
Saber, Indlieb Farazi. “A ‘cultural genocide’: Which of Gaza’s heritage sites have been destroyed?” Al Jazeera, January 14, 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/14/a-cultural-genocide-which-of-gazas-heritage-sites-have-been-destroyed.
Stennett, Aidan. “The Role of UNESCO in the Designation of World Heritage Sites, with Particular Reference to the Giant’s Causeway.” Research Paper, Northern Ireland Assembly (2007): 5. https://archive.niassembly.gov.uk/environment/2007mandate/Research/0710UNESCO.pdf.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “World Heritage List.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/.
United Nations Environment Programme. “Environmental impact of the conflict in Gaza: Preliminary assessment of environmental impacts.” https://www.un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/environmental_impact_conflict_Gaza.pdf.
United Nations Treaty Collection. “Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.” https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002800fece0.
United Nations Treaty Collection. “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280145bac.