Translation Studies Research Development in Indonesia

This paper is an overview on the development of Translation Studies (TS) research in Indonesia from 2008 to 2018. The study aims to discover whether the TS research conducted by the students of ten Indonesian universities has followed the present trends of TS research in the world. The data were obtained from the final papers (undergraduate theses, Master’s degree theses, and doctoral theses) of the universities having translation programs in Indonesia, particularly on Java and Bali Islands. The titles of the final papers were analyzed to obtain a general idea of what topics of TS research are usually investigated by Indonesian university students. The results show that most of the topics are categorized into text analysis and translation (product-oriented research), and very few belong to the process-oriented research, participant-oriented research, and other themes. This leads to the conclusion that TS research in Indonesia has not yet developed well and has not varied according to the international TS research progress.


INTRODUCTION
Translation Studies (TS) has just emerged since 1970s.Holmes known as the founding father of TS introduced this discipline via his paper presented in a conference in 1972, but it was only available worldwide in 1988.He described what TS should cover and the description has been summarized into a map, known as Holmes' Map (see Figure 1).
The map shows that TS, according to Holmes, consists of Pure TS and Applied TS.The former one is divided into theoretical and descriptive TS, and each is divided again into several parts.The latter is divided into four parts: translator training, translation aids, translation policy, and translation criticism.Holmes' map indicates that TS discipline can draw from many disciplines.
Bassnett-Mcguire considered TS as the new discipline firmly rooted in both theoretical and practical application (1980,17).She divided TS into four areas of interest which might overlap each other, namely two product-oriented areas (translation history and translation in the target language culture) and two process-oriented areas (translation and linguistics, and translation and poetics) (1980,(17)(18).In her second edition book, Snell-Hornby believes that TS should be an independent discipline (1995,7), and that TS needs to have its own methodology based on the translation complexities (1995,35).Munday states that the TS discipline has developed well since the beginning of the 21 st century as there are a number of specialized translation and interpreting courses at the undergraduate and graduate programs in many developed countries, such as UK, the Netherlands, France, US, etc. (2001, 6).Moreover, there have been many conferences, books, and journals on translation and interpreting, with many reputable publishers that help publish those books and journals (2001,6).
With the rapid and rigorous development of TS as an independent discipline in several developed countries, the question is: does this progress also occur in Indonesia?This present study aims to discover the TS research development in Indonesia from 2008 to 2018 based on the undergraduate theses, Master's degree theses, and dissertations of students whose topics are about translation.The research questions of this paper are: 1.What are the typical TS research topics written by Indonesian students from 2008 to 2018? 2. Have those topics followed the trends of TS research in the world?
PREVIOUS RESEARCH Tymoczko (2005) discusses trajectories of TS research, but the results are based more on her philosophical and theoretical points of view than on an empirical study or on any data analysis.The present study, on the contrary, analyzes the titles of student final papers to obtain the trends of research topics in Indonesia.There is one unpublished undergraduate thesis having a similar topic with this paper.The thesis was written by Ardiansyah (2009) about the trends of undergraduate and Master's thesis topics on translation in Indonesia.His study investigated the titles of 280 undergraduate theses from 14 universities on Java and Bali islands, and 83 Master's degree theses from 10 universities on Java, Bali, and Sumatera islands to discover the topics of the research of students from 1970s to 2008.The result of his research showed that most of the topics studied by Indonesian students were about text analysis and translation for both undergraduate and Master's degree theses.Likewise, this paper investigated the titles of Indonesian student final papers, but they are not only undergraduate and Master's degree theses but also dissertations from 2008 to 2018.Ardiansyah (2009) based his analysis merely on William and Chesterman (2002), while this present research applies more recent theories on translation research trends.
Another similar research was conducted by Yu-su Lan et al. (2009) focusing on research trends and methods of TS in Taiwan.They compared the international journal research papers and the theses published in Taiwan between 2002 and 2008.Their results revealed that the research methods applied in Taiwan and abroad were similar, and that the topics are also the same.Similarly, this paper also compares the topics of international journal papers and the topics of Indonesian student final papers to discover whether those topics by Indonesian students have followed the trends of TS research in world.The trends of TS research will be elaborated in the following section.William & Chesterman (2002) are the first TS scholars providing guidance for doing TS research.In their book, they propose 12 areas of research in relation to Holmes' map.The first area is text analysis and translation which involve source text analysis, comparison of translations and their source texts, comparison of translations and non-translated texts, and translation with commentary (annotated translation) (2002,(6)(7)(8).The second one is translation quality assessment which has three approaches: source-language oriented focusing on equivalence; target-language oriented focusing on translation's degree of naturalness; the assessment of translation effects on clients, teachers, critics, and readers (applying functional or communicative theories) (2002,(8)(9).The third is genre translation which investigates different types of texts to be translated.The fourth is multimedia translation which involves audiovisual texts, revoicing, and sur-or subtitle (2002,(13)(14).The fifth  (2002,(14)(15)(16)).The sixth is translation history which focuses on the translators themselves, their backgrounds, their relation with publishers and editors, and their motivation and their translation practice (who); on which texts are translated or not translated in particular culture and times (what); on the reasons why certain texts are translated or not translated (why); and on translators' strategies through the ages (how) (2002,(16)(17)(18).The seventh is translation ethics which researches on different kinds of ethics, cultural and ideological factors, codes of practice, and personal vs. professional ethics (2002,(18)(19)(20).The eighth is terminology and glossaries whose research can be both theoretical and practical and which involve documentary searches and corpus work (2002,(20)(21).The ninth is interpreting whose research has developed from anecdotal report to systematic work drawing on many aspects of interpreting, such as linguistics, communication, cognition, and socio-cultural aspects (2002,(21)(22)(23).Interpreting research also focuses on mode of interpreting (simultaneous or consecutive).The tenth is the translation process focusing on workplace studies and protocol studies (2002,(23)(24)(25).The eleventh is translator training which involves curriculum design, implementation, typical problem areas, and professional dimension (2002,(25)(26)(27).The twelfth is the translation profession whose research can be historical or contemporary and which focuses on the situation of the professional association (2002,27).Furthermore, William & Chesterman also divided the TS research into conceptual and empirical research.According to them, conceptual research is to define and describe concepts, while empirical research aims to search for new data from the observation of data and from experimental work (2002,58).Tymoczko (2005) proposed six areas of TS research developed for the following decades.The first area is translation definition and the definition of TS research as it becomes very diverse.The second one is translation internalization, which challenges 'basic Western assumptions about the nature of translation' and generates 'new case studies shaking the foundations of translation theory and practice ' (2005, 1083).The third one is the changes in translation theory and practice because of the emergence of technologies and globalization.The fourth is 'the application to translation of various interpretive perspectives based on frames from other disciplines' and 'superordinate categories investigated by scholarship in other fields ' (2005, 1083).The fifth is relationship of TS to cognitive science.The last one is TS relationship to neurophysiology.

TS RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT
Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) offer four types of TS research.The first one is product-oriented research using CDA (Critical Discourse Analysis) and CL (Corpus Linguistics).The research data of this type are translated and interpreted texts and paratexts (2013,51).The second one is process-oriented research which seeks to comprehend the behavior, competence, cognitive processes of translators or interpreters (2013,109).The third one is participant-oriented research which focuses on human agents (translators, interpreters, translation/ interpreting students, etc.) in the translation process.This research type is usually conceptual and discusses concepts and theories from sociology and other related disciplines (2013,150).It obtains data using questionnaires, surveys, interviews, and focus groups.The fourth one is contextoriented research, which is applied to search for external factors influencing individual translators or interpreters or to investigate how translations affect the target culture.The external factors can include political, economic, social, and ideological factors (2013,205).
The newest book on TS research is from Mellinger & Hanson (2017).Their work focuses on quantitative research in translation and interpreting studies.So far many studies in TS have applied qualitative research methods much more than the quantitative ones, especially in Indonesia; thus, this book brings new insights in doing TS research.Mellinger & Hanson provide meticulous explanation on conducting quantitative research on translation or interpreting from preparing the research (making research questions, hypotheses, and design), describing the research by applying descriptive statistics, probability distributions, statistical terminology, or one-sample tests, to analyzing differences, analyzing relationships, and interpreting results.Their work also shows how to apply scree plot, the median, the mean, histogram of unimodal and bimodal frequency distributions, graphs of positive and negative skewness, bar chart, scatterplot, line graph, box plot, Quantile-Quantile (QQ), ANOVA (analysis of variance), correlation coefficient, etc. in doing TS research.Hence, the quantitative research conducted does not merely apply simple and manual mathematical calculations but applies complicated mathematical operations with some formulas and with the help of SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).
Besides those references above, this paper also seeks for the recent topics of international journal papers to compare them with the topics of Indonesian student final papers.The titles of the journal papers from three scopus-indexed journals with Q1 or Q2 ranking have been selected from 2016 to 2019 to show the world trends in TS research.Those journals are The Translator (Taylor & Francis, UK), The International Journal of Translation and Interpreting Research (Australia), and Meta: Journal des traducteurs (Translators' Journal, Canada).The classification of topics from those international journals is based on the paper's titles and abstracts, and the topics are listed in the following tables (Table 1, 2, 3).
Those three tables show the 2016-2019 topics of three scopus-indexed international journals which are famous in the TS field.The topics vary and include all four areas (product-oriented, process-oriented, participantoriented, and context-oriented) of TS research based on Saldanha & O'Brien (2013).The ones which are productoriented mostly apply a corpus study and involve big data or more than one text to be investigated.Many topics are about research connecting several fields or disciplines, such as subtitle, translation quality, and terminology, or translation education, translator's training, translation competence, and translation profession studied in one paper.Hence, based on the four books and the topics of the international journal papers, this study will compare whether the Indonesian final papers have followed the trends of TS research in the world.

METHOD
This research applied a descriptive qualitative method, as it describes the trends of Indonesian student final paper topics from 2008 to 2018 from 10 universities in Indonesia, particularly on Java and Bali Islands.The present study analyzes the topics from the titles of all the final papers discovered.The following is the table containing all the universities' names, status, and locations.The names of the universities in the table 4 are arranged alphabetically.There are six (6) state universities (UGM, UI, UNJ, UNPAD, UNS, UNUD) and four (4) private universities (Atmajaya, Gunadarma, Sanata Dharma, STBA LIA).Five of them are located in Jakarta and its surrounding cities, and the rest are from outside Jakarta.UNPAD is in West Java, and UGM and Sanata Dharma are located in Yogyakarta.UNS is in Central Java, and UNUD is in Bali.Why are the data mostly found on Java and Bali Islands?It is because those two islands are the most developed ones compared to other islands in Indonesia, and they have the best universities which have translation programs.Rarely do translation programs exist in universities outside those two islands.
The data were obtained by several ways.First of all, as the researcher is the full-time teacher at UI, it is accessible for her to acquire the titles or the topics of the student final papers of UI.Second, the researcher was assisted by her acquaintances in several universities to obtain access from their libraries.Third, the researcher searched the data from an online library of each university which has an open access.The years of the data are from 2008 to 2018, as many things might have happened in the last 10 years.The following table shows the years of the data from each university.

Institution
State Private Jakarta and its satellite cities Outside Jakarta and its satellite cities  There are a huge number of data collected from those ten universities from 2008 to 2018.There are 638 data to be exact.The preceeding table 5 contains the number of the data from each university.
From the table 6 above, the most data obtained are the Master's theses which include annotated translations.The second most data are the undergraduate theses.There are only 19 data of doctoral theses on translation found from five universities, all of which are state universities.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
In order to discover whether all the research conducted by students in Indonesian universities has followed the TS research development in the world, a list of phrases from the theory section above is used to make a comparison.The list is obtained from Williams & Chesterman (2002), Tymoczko (2005), Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) to Mellinger & Hanson (2017).
Based on Table 7 above, Table 9 to 11 are the tables containing the number of data categorized according to the 'theme' or 'theory' proposed by the TS scholars.
The discussion is divided into three parts in accordance with the level of education.The reason is because each level should be taught differently, where the undergraduate level students are usually taught about the introduction of certain studies, the basic principles of those certain studies, etc.; the Master's degree program usually consists of more critical subjects, more advanced or learning more than basic principles; the doctoral degree prepares students on more philosophical level towards deeper research leading to or discovering new theories or principles.Thus, the focus of the research should be different too.Below is the explanation for the findings of each level of final papers.

The TS research trends in Indonesian undergraduate theses
Out of 302 undergraduate theses found from six universities, 226 (74.8%) belong to the theme of text analysis and translation (see Table 8), which is actually product-oriented research.However, those papers cannot be categorized as Saldanna & O'Brien's product-oriented research as it refers to the use of CL (corpus linguistics) and CDA (critical discourse analysis) in the research, while it is not the case with Indonesian undergraduate theses.The topics of Indonesian undergraduate theses discovered from 2008 to 2018 in this category are mostly about translation techniques, translation procedures, translation ideology, translation methods, translation strategies, equivalences, cultural word translation, translation of idioms, translation of prepositions, translation shifts, translation of metaphors, translation of certain expressions, translation of passive sentences, translation of slang words, loss and gain in translation, the translation of figurative language, translation of gerund, translation of implicit meaning, translation of taboo words, and comparative analysis between the source text and the target text.Many of those themes reoccurred a number of times, and some reappeared several times over the course of 10 years.
The second and the third most common themes of the Indonesian students' final papers belong to translation quality assessment (appearing 27 times or 8.9%) and multimedia translation (appearing 26 times or 8.6%), respectively.These two themes are still considered product-oriented research.The topics categorized in translation quality assessment are about error analysis in translation, the accuracy of translation, the naturalness of translation, the readability of translation, and the acceptability of translation.All those topics reoccurred several times.For the theme of multimedia translation, the topics are about subtitle translation, the slang language register translation in movies, song lyrics translation, taboo word translation in movies, and social media caption translation.The most frequent topics of this category are subtitle translation and taboo word translation in movies.
The fourth, the fifth, and the sixth common themes based on the research are genre translation (appearing nine times or 2.98%), terminology and glossaries (appearing 7 times or 2.3%), and the translation process (appearing two times or 0.7%), respectively.The fourth and the fifth themes are part of product-oriented research, while the sixth theme should belong to the process-oriented research.However, the translation process referred to by Williams & Chesterman (2002) is not similar with the one referred to by Saldanna & O'Brien (2013), as the latter focuses on the behavior, competence, and cognitive processes of translators and interpreters.Meanwhile, the topics on the translation process discovered from the research are about tracing the translation process using TAPs (Think-Aloud Protocols) and Screen Recording Methods.Moreover, the topics on genre translation are about legal text translation, journalistic text or news translation, medical text translation, tourism text translation, instructional text translation, translation of poetry, and comic translation.The topics on terminology and glossaries are about translation analysis on cooking terminology, translation of cultural terms, and translation of ecological terms.The topic on translation of cultural terms appeared several times.
Finally, there are several themes, each of which has only one paper (0.3%).Those themes are translation and technology, translation history, translator training, process-oriented TS research, and participant-oriented TS research.The topic on translation and technology is about the use MT (machine translation) such as Bing Translator and Google Translator in literary and academic text translation.The topic on translation history is about the trends of undergraduate and Master's theses in Indonesian universities, which is quite similar with the topic of this present study, but that paper was completed in 2009, while this research focuses on final papers from 2008 to 2018.The topic on translator training is about the increase of translation skills of students through peer learning.Moreover, the topic on process-oriented TS research is about the translation competence of high school students.Finally, the topic on participant-oriented TS research is about the influence of critical thinking, reading comprehension, and grammar mastery towards academic text translation skills by using a survey.

The TS research trends in Indonesian Master's theses
As for the Master's degree theses, the most common theme is the same as the most common theme of the undergraduate theses, which is text analysis and translation with 233 papers or 73.5%.None of these papers involves CL or CDA, so they cannot be considered as Saldanna & O'Brien's product-oriented research.The topics on this theme are about annotated translation, translation of phrasal verbs, translation of phrasal nouns, translation of prepositions, cultural word translation, translation of euphemisms, idiom translation, metaphor translation, equivalences, translation of pronouns, translation strategies, translation procedures, translation methods, translation of passive construction, novel translation, short-story translation, pragmatic translation, semantic translation, figurative language (simile, personification, proverb) translation, translation of adjectives, translation techniques, translation shifts, loss and gain in translation, holy book (Qur'an an Bible) translation, translation of modality, translation of idiolect, translation of emotions, translation of slang words, translation of taboo words, translation of imagery, translation of adverbs, translation of swearing words, translation ideologies, translation of sexual expression, translation of irony, translation of implicit meaning, translation of cohesive devices, translation of metonymy of synecdoche, translation of imperative sentences, translation of complex sentences, translation of aspects, problems in translation, translation of collocations, translation of English articles.Many of those topics appeared several times within the period studied.
The second and the third most common themes research for Master's degree are genre translation and translation quality assessment, which belong to productoriented research too.The topics on genre translation are about legal text translation, academic text translation, news translation, religious text translation, poem translation, and literary text translation.The topics on translation quality assessment are about evaluating students' competence in doing translation using a scoring rubric, translation criticism, impact on translation quality, translation techniques and translation quality, error analysis in translation, and translation naturalness.The topics on each theme appeared several times over the course of ten years.The fourth, the fifth, and the sixth common themes are multimedia translation, terminology and glossaries, and interpreting.The topics on multimedia translation are only about subtitle translation, which is researched from different angles, but there is none about song lyric translation or social media caption translation.The topics on terminology and glossaries are about procurement terminologies, traditional terminologies, technical translation of the bilingual glossary, medical terms, photography terminologies, religious terms, immigration terms, environmental terms, and legal terms.The topics on interpreting are about techniques applied in simultaneous interpreting and oral translation in the leather puppet show.
Surprisingly the topics of Master's degree theses are less varied than those of undergraduate theses.In fact, many topics of both levels of education are just similar.Most of them just focused on one text to be analyzed and did not attempt to connect several fields of translation and/ or interpreting just like the topics of international journal papers.At this level (Master's degree) students ought to be taught to read more international journal papers and recent theories in translation and/or interpreting to have more diverse topics for research.

The TS research trends in Indonesian dissertations (doctoral theses)
The most common themes for doctoral theses in Indonesian universities from 2008 to 2018 are also text analysis and translation (appearing seven times or 37%) and genre translation (also appearing seven times or 37%).The topics on text analysis and translation are about novel translation (divergent cultural scheme), idiom translation, translation techniques, methods, and ideologies, translation shifts, equivalences, and metaphor translation.The topics on genre translation are about speech translation, academic text translation, legal text translation, and religious text translation.All these topics belong to product-oriented research, but are not part of Saldanha & O'Brien's product-oriented research as they do not apply CDA or CL.
The second most common theme is processoriented TS research with two papers only or 10.5%.The topics are about cognitive behaviors in the translation process and cognitive activities in the translation process.There are three themes having each merely one paper (5.3%).The themes are translation quality assessment, multimedia translation, and interpreting.The topic on translation quality assessment is about legal and academic text translation quality.The topic on multimedia translation is about subtitle translation.The topic on interpreting is about court interpreting.
Once again, this result shows the similarity of common topics among undergraduate theses, Master's degree theses, and dissertations.It is quite unfortunate actually as this highest level of education should follow the recent topics in TS research and should be able to connect more than one field in translation and/or interpreting.The doctoral students should be encouraged to read more in-depth many international journal papers besides the newest theory by TS scholars.However, this has not happened yet in Indonesia.

The Indonesian TS research topics based on years
In this part, the paper will discuss the TS research trends based on the topics most commonly repeated in several years.

Figure
Figure 1.Holmes' map (based on Holmes 1988) Translation Studies

Table 11 . Based on Mellinger & Hanson (2017)
Table 12 consists of the summary of topics researched by Indonesian universities students