Waterschappen (Irrigation Agencies) in Vorstenlanden Surakarta and YOGYAKARTA, 1900-1942

The purpose of this study is to track the introduction of the irrigation agency (Watershappen) in the Vorstenlanden area Surakarta and Yogyakarta as well as effects on the relationship between farmers, farmers and plantation owners. In addition, this study aims to understand the patterns of institutional change and the water distribution system in the Vorstenlanden region and consequently on agriculture and plantation. State involvement in the problem of water distribution in the Vorstenlanden area causing a collision between a proportional system that has been done by the traditional farmers with absolute system applied state. As a result, irrigation conflicts arise between plantation because of the use of a watershed point for some plantations. Conflicts between plantations and farmers because of water scarcity due to the autonomy of the estate in the distribution of water to agricultural land and conflicts between farmers as water encroachment without the knowledge of other farmers.


IntroductIon
Vorstenlanden is a king territory covering an area of Surakarta Sunanate (Kasunanan Surakarta), Duchy of Mangkunegaran (Kadipaten Mangkunegaran), Yogyakarta Sultanate (Kasultanan Yogyakarta), and Duchy of Pakualaman (Kadipaten Pakualaman). Institutions that take care of irrigation in the Vorstenlanden region is Waterschap Centraal Kantoor voor Vorstenlanden and it is under the Department van Verkeer en Waterstaat. Waterschap Centraal Kantoor voor Vorstenlanden, or better known Waterschappen, based in Yogyakarta. The Institute is a technical institution and supervision of irrigation in Surakarta and Yogyakarta. Structurally, Centraal Waterschaap Kantoor voor Vorstenlanden is a unit of irrigation from the Office of Inspector of the Bureau of Technical Administration Surakarta and Yogyakarta (Technische Zeljbestuurdiensten in Vorstenlanden) that serves as a technical advisor services agencies in the autonomous governments in Surakarta and Yogyakarta (MVO Helsdingen, 1929: 93).
Waterschapp Dengkeng and Bengawan in Surakarta and Waterschapp Opak Progo in Yogyakarta, responsible for structuring technical and administrative irrigation. Waterschapp as legal entities are expected to act neutral in resolving conflicts of interest between onderneming owners and farmers. This research tries to trace the development of modern irrigation agency (Waterschappen) in the Vorstenlanden region Surakarta and Yogyakarta and consequences thereof. For a century, since the opening Vorstenlanden regions for plantation areas, the owners have enjoyed the right to use water resources for operational plantations purposes. Meanwhile, plantations and agricultural interests of the people who wear the same land for plantation crops and food crops, and also require the same water, has raised the issue of water distribution. That is because there is no application of the rules of fair and neutral irrigation for farmers, for the autonomous government and for plantations in the distribution of water for agricultural purposes (Rouffaer, 1921: 380).
The involvement of the state in matters of water distribution in the Vorstenlanden area have caused collision between a proportional system and absolute system. Proportional system have been long established by the traditional farmers based on the size of the area of land to be drained. Meanwhile, the absolute system applied state, the drainage of water on agricultural land are based on agronomic considerations such as the need for water on each plant. Absolute system have been based on the consideration of technical a nd agronomic standard, based on the condition o f plants in an agricultural area. (Ravesteijn, 1998: 105.). At the turn of the 20th century began to change because of increased concern for the welfare of the indigenous population and the strong political influence of the sugar industry. Irrigation agencies converted into an independent organization with a technocratic ideology by linking irrigation wit h prosperity, progress, and civilization. Technocratic ideology is what eventually became a very important element in the policy of ethical politics.
Based on the above, the main issues that arises is why the modern irrigation once established institutions in the Vorstenlanden region it raises new issues of the institutional aspects and farmers relationships with farmers, farmer relations with plantation owners. The purpose of this study is to investigate the process of esta blishment of modern irrigation in the Vorstenla nden region and its consequences on relations between farmers, farmers and plantation ow ners, and the relationship between the owners of the plantation.
In addition, this study aims to un derstand the patterns of institutional change a nd the water distribution system in the Vorsten landen region and consequently on agriculture an d plantation sector. In order to answer the afo rementioned research questions, I will analyse information gathered from primary and secondar y sources. This study mostly uses the primary source in the form of archives. Information from archival sources will be sought from offici al sources of the colonial government, especially reports stored at Library and regional archives in Yogyakarta, Pakualaman, and Mangkunegaran. Se condary sources are obtained from nationa l libraries in Jakarta and several libraries in Yogyakarta. By hierarchical, Waterschappen based on the unity of irrigation sections and in afdeeling level headed by an engineer. Section chief in charge of irrigation orderlies (mantri) and under irrigation orderly contained foreman (mandor) positions. Section chief duties include organizing and planning the technical aspects such as damming permanently. The task of irrigation orderly conduct supervision of foreman. Foreman and foreman assistant in charge of overseeing the irrigation channel. Foreman assistant is the lowest echelon in irrigation agencies. Across the regions Surakarta and Yogyakarta, the number of orderlies personnel about 50 people and the amount of irrigation foreman 300 (Joon, 1940: 5).
Technical and administrative arrangement of irrigation has been conducted in Waterschapp Dengkeng and Bengawan (Surakarta) and Waterschapp Opak Progo (Yogyakarta). All matters relating to the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities, are handled by a semiautonomous agency. The legal consequences of the establishment of semi-autonomous agency of irrigation is the revocation of the right to development and exploitation of irrigation facilities previously held by plantation owners (Joon, 1940: 2). Some of the irrigation department in the autonomous region Vorstenlanden melted. In Mangkunegaran, for example, in 1926 the irrigation department Karanganyar merged into Waterschapp Bengawan. Section of Sragen region network operation (section of Karanganyar) and Solo (section of Colomadu) previously included Kring Pepe irrigation merged into the operating area of Waterschapp Bengawan (Angenent, 1933: 34).
Operational area of Waterschapp Opak Progo covers an area measuring 64,200 bau that includes 25 estates, mostly located in the Region of Yogyakarta. Scope of exploitation is Afdeeling of Yogyakarta, Kulon Progo and Afdeeling of Klaten in Surakarta. Borders of Waterschapp Opak Progo region covering northern regions, ranging from the Krasak river that disgorge at Merapi mountains until the estuary of Opak river in the Indian Ocean. On the Eastern border is the Opak river, in the southern part includes the Progo river, Krasak, and Serang. Meanwhile, the scope of work Waterschapp Dengkeng covering 64,200 bau, includes 27 estates. Scope exploitation of the northern regions, ranging from the mountains of Merapi, Kadipiro River basin and Pusur river, Brambang river, until the border Afdeeling of Klaten and Boyolali. The southern border areas ranging from Nglumbe river basin in Baderan to Brambang river. In the eastern area ranging from Bengawan river basin, Dengkeng, to the south of the border between the residency of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. While the western border up in the catchment Opak area (Angenent, 1933: 15).
Scope of work area Waterschapp Bengawan measuring 68,000 bau, including the two onderneming. Coverage of exploitation in the north began bordering near the village of Pepe river in Nganti, the border river flow Cemoro up towards the Bengawan Solo. In the eastern part until the Sawur river tipped over Lawu mountain peaks. In the southern part of the border streams start Jlantah river until bridge near Tlobo village until to Jatipuro. At the Eastern start of Baboon river (area Jatipuro) Bengawan river, the Gandul river, the border area south of the river flow Nglumbi in Baderan, until the border Afdeeling of Klaten and Boyolali. In the west to the border of the western part of the Pepe river flow.

developMent of Modern IrrIgAtIon And IntereStS of plAntAtIon InduStrIeS
The development of irrigation semi-modern facilities in the Vorstenlanden had started almost simultaneously with the development of plantation sector. Private planters in Surakarta, for example, has allocated millions of guilders for the construction of irrigation facilities to support the operation and expansion of the plantation sector in Surakarta. (Joon, 1940: 4.) The criteria for selection was based on the availability of land for plantations adequate water supply and the possibility of increasing the area of land to be planted. Once that is done the construction of dams and water channels before starting the cultivation of the soil (Houben, 1994: 293). Meanwh i le, until the year 1910, growers in Yogyaka r ta has built several irrigation facilities, wh i ch are then integrated into the modern irrigation s y stem.  In 1920 was constructed Larangan irrigation channels in Mangkunegaran. With the completion of the construction of irrigation facilities is very useful to prevent flooding of villages in the surrounding villages (MVO J. van der Marel, 1924: 78). In 1921 the dam was built in Jlantah river in Jombor, Afdeeling of Klaten and in 1922 built a dam in Bajran to spend f 67,000. In 1922 began the construction of Delingan reservoirs in Tirtomarto and execution completed in September 1922. The reservoir is very useful for irrigation facilities around the Tasikmadu Sugar Factory in Afdeeling of Karanganyar. The funds needed for the construction of the entire reservoir totaled f. 614,000. A quarter of the funds contributed by Mangkunegaran palace and 3/4 of contributions Tasikmadu Sugar Factory. Delingan reservoir in the form of a large water reservoir or reservoir by damming the upstream Jirak river. The dam is the extent of 500,000 cubic meters and contains 4,000,000 cubic meters of water discharge. With the construction of the irrigation water shortage can be overcome (A.K. Pringgodigdo, 1950: 196). With the Delingan construction of reservoirs, water supply in the dry and rainy season from the area around the reservoir can be increased by 12,000 bau (MVO J. van der Marel, 1924: 79) and 8515 ha of sugarcane area in Tasikmadu can be fed throughout the year.
In 1923 completed the construction of the main channel in the city of Solo, which cost up to f 86 237 which partly contributed by Mangkunegaran amount 29 387 Gulden (MVO van der Marel, 1924: 80). In 1924 began a program launched by the improvement of irrigation facilities in the Jetu area in Afdeeling of Karanganyar. The program aims to improve conditions for agricultural irrigation in the area, especially around the area of Tasikmadu sugarcane. The program in the improvement of receiver channel, floodgates, and the means of draining the main divider 1000 bau, help s supply and distribution in the region and surrounding territories Trani in Triagan Afdeeling of Karanganyar (MVO van der Marel, 1924: 80). The i mprovement of irrigation facilities spent of f 60 , 000 most of which are owned plantations and contributing Mangkunegaran Palace. In 1924 built irrigation facilities in Sugihan river, Wiroko river basin, in Afdeeling of Wonogiri with funds f 60,000. Irrigation facilities is a means of prime divi s ors of aqueducts Sugihan river. In 1926 buil t another irrigation facilities in Kalongan, Kara n ganyar, which is part of the general plan for t he improvement of irrigation reservoir in Delingan. This development such as construction of K a longan kanal along the 3000 meter, 5000 mete r long secondary channel in Jogopaten, as well as the improvement of means of increasing wate r discharge from Singit river. In April 1926 comp l eted the construction of Jombor reservoirs in K l aten. This reservoir is needed because the popu l ation in the Jombor area at the dry season is a l ways a shortage of water, especially for agri c ulture (MVO van der Marel, 1924: 81).
In 1927 the dam was completed in Ngancar Batu r etno. This reservoir has an intake capacity of 1 , 500,000 cubic meters and managed to irri g ate the rice paddies of 4000 bau. The total construction cost of f 150,000 of which were borne by Mangkunegaran. In 1927 also resolved tapper chan n el reservoirs Batal in Wiroko Afdeeling of W o nogiri. Construction of irrigation system for i rrigating the area 400 bau and spend f. 250, 0 00. (Rijksblaad Mangkunegaran 1927: 35-40). For the purposes of plantation expansion project in the north Klodran of the Pepe river built also Cengklik reservoir at a cost of f. 637,000. Cons t ruction of irrigation facilities is intended to s u pply water to the expansion of the plant and i ncrease the milling capacity PG Tasikmadu (Rijksblaad Mangkunegaran 1927: 45-46) In 1927 also resolved tapper channel reservoirs in Wiroko Afdeeling of Wonogiri. Construction of irrigation system for irrigating the area 400 bau that spent f 250,000. (Rijksblaad Mangkunegaran 1927: 35 40.) Implementation of Nederlansche Waterschapp Vorstenlanden Ordonantie in fact the same as the implementation of the principle of law for the lease of l a nd (Vorstenlandsche Grondhuurreglement). Both set of legal certainty for European plantation acti v ity. Aspects of soil and water as one comp o nent of the production process aimed at integrating plantation soils were scattered and cut pieces into a vast estate. The formation of a block plantations, easy management from the standpoint of m a nagement, irrigation, transport, lay of the land and reduce the cost of labor exploitation (Suh a rtono, 1992: 97). According to reports Helsdingen's resident, in 1929 has been converted appanages area of 93240 bau throughout Surakarta (MVO Helsdingen, 1929: 68). Another factor that supports the centralized location of the estate is the impact of agrarian reorganization. In the opinion of the Nieuwenhuijs's resident linkages between land reorganization and reorganization of the irrigation sector is a cornerstone of the implementation of comp r ehensive land r eorganization program in the Vorstenlanden r e gion (MvO Nieuiwenhuijs., Memo r i Serah Terima Jabatan Jawa Timur dan Tana h Kerajaan, Jak a rta: ANRI, 1978, hlm. cclxii.).
With the establishment of Waterschapp Opak Progo, Dengkeng and Bengawan, the role of the civi l bureaucracy and the plantation owners in mana g ing the distribution of water began to be reduced. It was due to the strengthening of the role and authority of the engineer in making the supply and distribution of water in the area of plantations in Vorstenlanden (Ravesteijn, 1998: 105). On the other hand, with the strengthening of the authority of the engineer in the control of the water supply is also accompanied by reduced government authority of t h e autonomous Yogyakarta Sultanate, du c hy of Pakualaman, Surakarta Sunanate and duchy of Mangkunegaran. Irrigation bureaucratic apparatus in S i ndumarto, Mangkunegaran, for example, the number of personnel being phased including oper a tional funds. After 1933 Mangkunegara n irrigation department merged with the Department of P u blic Works of Mangkunegaran. Previous inst i tutions melting process begins with t he inte g ration of the operating area in Sindu merto, Krin g Waterschapp Bengawan in 1927 (MVO Helsdingen, 1929: 102).

probleMS of IrrIgAtIon: growerS And fArMerS
Auto n omous right of Onderneming to manage the d evelopment and exploitation of irrigation faci l ities reserved leasing the land (Article 12 b Vors t enlanden Grondhuureglement, Staatblad Nede r lands Indie no. 20, 1918). The plantation comp a ny as a tenant has the right to determine the distribution of water for agriculture, industry, and t he need others. As the excesses of the natu r e of an autonomous and privileges owned plan t ation companies and the absence of legal auth o rity owned autonomous government in the regu l ation and management of the problem of irrigation, often leads to the issue of dividing the allocation of water among the entrepreneurs. One of the consequences of the problem is the conflict division and the use of a watershed in Klaten in 1919 by the three estates in Gedaren, Ngupit and Keta n dan. The occurrence of misappropriation of i m plementation of irrigation systems day and night also accomplished by plantation companies. The m anipulation is done by flowing water into the p lantation areas during the day and night by tapping the river. The actions of these plantations caus e dissatisfaction among the population (Rit v eld, 1927: 6).
The same thing also happened in Yogyakarta. Distribution Policy of water day and night which was i mplemented in 1841, continues to be applied when the institution was founded modern irrigation. Regulation of water sharing thoroughly and u niformly throughout Dutch East Indies is not i mplemented by the colonial government in t h e Yogyakarta area. This issue submitted for each area or region with an agreement between onde r neming and local farmers. During the day, water flowed in sugar cane crops and crop farmers in the dry state. At night, the water diverted from plantation crops to farmers' crops. In practice this system of day and night, it onderneming a lot of cheating. Often at night crop farmers who should get a share of the water but the water remained deta i ned by onderneming. It is then often lead to theft of a water allocation and dispute among farmers to get water (Selosoemardjan, 1991: 226 227) .
The occurrence of water shortages in the dry season is actually a natural thing, given the scarcity of w a ter resources is a natural phenomenon that cannot be avoided. Water scarcity can be seen as a la c k of quantity of natural resources but also as l i mited access to water itself (Downing and Gibson, 1974: X). However, as a result of limited access and differences in water requirements for growers and farmers that finally lead to a conflict of interest between farmers and plantations. In some cases, conflicts are caused by lack of water supply due to the dry season occurs between farmers with estates. In the dry season, especially in May and Nove m ber, the water supply is divided between watering to plant sugarcane and pulses (Deventer, 1914 : 205.) Rotation planting sugarcane, pulses and r ice lasts almost all year round. Sugar cane crop was planted in early April that the next dry seas o n water allocation prioritized for breeding seed cane. Often the day and night watering rules are n ot complied with by the grower (Rapport van S uikeir Enqquete, 1928: 28). Farmers along the s tream of Opak Progo, for example, in 1937 protests on the estates because a large part of the rive r water used to fill the tanks of immersion Ross e la growers (Archive of Vorstenlandsche Wate r schappen, BPAD DIY, inventory number: [43][44][45][46] In t h e region of Vorstenlanden, from June to September, farmers grow crops such as beans and soy. In these months if there are farmers who grow Gadu rice in areas that should be planted with crops, the Irrigation Department will regard as crops plant and irrigation quota equal to crops as many as 1 1/2 parts water. In the rainy season, farmers will plant Dalem rice, 5-6 months old who usually start planting in January. Meanwhile, in the r egion of Waterschapp Opak Progo applied the rule that in the area of technical irrigation, the dry season cultivation Gadu rice only allowed in certain areas. In connection with these regulations, the Head of Waterschaap kantoor voor Centraal Vors t enlanden, Ir. Numans, exp l ained that the nati v es are not forbidden to p l ant Gadu rice in tech n ical irrigated (sawah ile n an) in the dry season, but farmers are still planting rice must be prepared to accept the risk of water shortages, and will lead to crop failure. (Supomo, 1927: 88 89).
Irri g ation conflict between th e plantation which happened in Klaten in 1919 for having used one point watershed in Dengkeng by three estates in G e daren, Ngupit and Ketand a n. The conflict arises because the plantation owners did not reach agreement on a neutral point of water delivery. The conflict is also fueled by the autonomous nature of the estate to the ownership of water resources. As a result of the conflict, the three onderneming is continuing with the closure of access roads to plan tations by their respec t ive owners (Joon, 1940 : 5). Irrigation confli c t between farmers and plantation companies a r e also common, espe cially in the area of sugarcane plantations. Water manipulation practices done by sugarcane plantations have been detrimental to farmers and result in dissatisfaction among farmers (Rietveld, 1927 : 4). Conflict between g rowers and farmers often arise because farmers do theft of water by making a hole in the trench ditch water distribution (MVO van Wijck, 1914: 77). On 10 March 1937, in t he village of Kedungp r i ng, afdeeling Kulon Prog o, had been conflicts b etween farmers and farm ers as a matter of w a t er dues (Pakualaman Arch ives, code 014.5.1.2 . 3 667).

concluSIonS
With the establishment of Waterschapp then appl ied the principle of centralized management and irrigation institutions. Irrigation plantation, Sult anate, Pakualaman, Mangkunegaran, Kasu nanan and the agricultural community, inte grated into a technical body. Legally, the lega l consequences of the establishment of mode rn irrigation agency is revocation of the righ t to autonomy onderneming in irrigation mana gement in their own areas. But in reality, onde rneming retains the right of autonomous wate r management with take cover behind the Hire Act land in Vorstenlanden (Vorstenlanden

Gron dhuureglement).
Stat e involvement in irrigation in Vors tenlanden, through modern irrigation agen cies, led to the collision of the proportional syst em which have been long established by the trad itional farmers with absolute system which appl ied state. As a result, conflicts of interest aris e between farmers and growers, farmers and plantation, plantation and the plantation. Irrigation conflict between plantation to appear because of the use of the watershed point for some plantations. The conflict arises because the plantation owners did not reach agreement on a neutral point of water delivery. The conflict is also fueled by the autonomous nature of the estate to the ownership of water resources is still maintained by the plantation.
Conflicts between farmers and the farmers also occur, especially in the area of sugarcane plantations. water manipulation practice performed by a sugar cane plantation has hurt many farmers and consequently appears discontent among farmers. In the conflict between growers and farmers often occur because farmers stealing water. Scarcity of water during the dry season also sparked conflict among farmers, especially in the area of sugarcane plantations. The conflict occurs because the seizure of water by farmers who turn makes aqueduct itself without being noticed by other farmers.