Challenges and Opportunities in Strengthening ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation

ASEAN is regional cooperation between countries in the Southeast Asia region to benefit its member states. Amidst much ongoing teamwork, regional space cooperation has not been optimized as it is still limited to the use of technology. By applying a qualitative method, this paper aims to describe the challenges and opportunities in strengthening the ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation. It may either hinder or even potentially frame a sustainable international relation that accommodates ASEAN member states to develop more possibilities to maximize the use of space technology. This literary study argues that ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation may become a robust bridge to transfer space technology, strengthen national, regional, and international security, enhance economic growth, and means of transferring knowledge or space education to its member states.


Introduction
Changes in the global strategic environment have occurred so rapidly, which is marked by the development of increasingly sophisticated technology that has implications for changes in the international, regional, and national order. The flow of globalization can no longer be stopped to enter various countries in the world. Globalization is accompanied by increasingly sophisticated technological developments, where the world has entered the era of 1 Corresponding email astrijigannas@gmail.com industrial revolution 4.0. The presence of the 4.0 industrial revolution was marked by the development of artificial intelligence, big data, robotic, internet of things (IoT), and the development of digital technology. Digital technology has taken over various roles in the life of the nation and state. Digital technology has spread rapidly in various corners of the world. Information and communication technology (ICT) has also historically been considered a significant driver of the global economy (Mubarak, 2018).
Whether we realize it or not, currently, technology has a significant role. Digital technology is one of the developments in space technology. There is a saying that who controls technology will rule the world, who controls space technology will rule the world. It is a saying that describes the influence of technology, especially space technology, in daily human life. Digital information technology and the internet now seems to have ruled the world because it dramatically facilitates human activities, and many people who depend on internet networks/ digital technology. Through an internet connection, any information will efficiently and quickly spread throughout the world.
However, the development of space technology in various countries in the world is uneven. There is a gap in the development of extensive space technology between rich and developing countries, this also happens in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states. In the fields of science and technology, cooperation related to space has also been carried out. Cooperation related to space is contained in the ASEAN Economic Community forum, namely the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Science and Technology (AMMST) in the Committee on Science and Technology (COST). However, the scope of the cooperation is still related to the use of space technology which is contained in the Sub-Committee on Space Technology and Application (SCOSA), while space cooperation related to space technology development has not yet been carried out.
The principle to unite space activities in the ASEAN region to be more efficient is essential to do because the capabilities of ASEAN member states in space technology are different. In the development of space technology, we cannot do it alone. The hightech, high-money, and high-risk nature of space technology make a country have to cooperate with other countries. Concerning ASEAN, then how can this cooperation related to space technology be carried out. Opportunities and challenges in realizing space technology cooperation in the ASEAN framework must be identified to be able to formulate a more optimal space cooperation scheme. S. Rajaratnam, Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore, in August 1967, when ASEAN was formed, said that "We must think not only of our national interests but posit them against regional interests: that is a new way of thinking about our problems. We must make these painful and difficult adjustments. If we are not going to do that, then regionalism remains a utopia" (Abad, 1997).
From S. Rajaratnam's statement, the importance of cooperation, especially regional cooperation, is increasingly strengthened. Moreover, space cooperation in the ASEAN level related to special space technology becomes one of the collaborations that must be initiated immediately, further to strengthen ASEAN's role in space-related to international world. However, at present, the ASEAN space technology cooperation is still not optimal in its implementation and the object of cooperation, some many opportunities and challenges must be faced in strengthening space technology cooperation between ASEAN member states. The purpose of this paper is to identify opportunities and challenges in strengthening ASEAN space technology cooperation and formulate a more optimal cooperation scheme that can be carried out within the framework of ASEAN space technology cooperation.

Conceptual Framework
In order to ground our study, we employ three conceptual frameworks, namely international cooperation, regionalism, and space diplomacy. As seen below, those three are deeply engaged in helping us understand and identify the challenges and opportunities of possible space technology cooperation in and within ASEAN member states.

International Cooperation
International cooperation is part of the study of international relations. According to Holsti, cooperation can be defined as follows (Holsti, 1997, pp. 652-653): 1. The view that two or more interests, values, or goals meet one another and can produce something, be promoted, or be fulfilled by all parties at once; 2. The view or hope of one country that the policies decided by other countries will help the country to achieve its interests and values; 3. Certain agreements or problems between two or more countries in order to take advantage of equality of interest or conflict of interest; 4. Official or informal rules regarding future transactions made to carry out the agreement; 5. Transactions between countries to fulfill their agreement.
Therefore international cooperation can be defined as relations/interactions between countries carried out by state actors and nonstate actors to achieve specific goals. International cooperation can be divided into three forms, namely (Holsti, 1997, pp. 652-653): 1. bilateral cooperation, is a form of international cooperation between one country with another country, or with other non-state actors (occurs between 2 state actors or non-state actors); 2. multilateral cooperation is a form of international cooperation between one country with many other countries, or with many other non-state actors (occurring between more than two state actors or non-state actors); 3. regional cooperation is a form of cooperation carried out by state actors or non-state actors who are in the same region.
While the motive for conducting cooperation is related to space technology cooperation, it can be linked to science & technology (S&T) cooperation. The motivating factors and motives of countries to engage in international cooperation vary greatly. Flanagan, K. et al. (2012) have identified two broad sets of goals for international S&T cooperation. First, the fundamental objectives, which directly lead to proof of S&T, such as collaboration among researchers or building large-scale infrastructure. Second, the external objectives that focus on supporting other policies such as foreign policy, economic/ market policy, or development policy.
In their study entitled "Basic Principles for Effective International Science, Technology and Innovation Agreements: Main Report" (2014, pp. 9-12) Fikkers and Horvat identified 15 motives in conducting international S&T cooperation on a spectrum that ranged from 'narrow' agreements to 'broad' agreements, namely: 1) Increase cooperation; 2) Exchange of experience; 3) Achieve changes in R&D funding patterns; 4) Increase the economies of scale of R&D; 5) Increase access to research infrastructure; 6) Increase human capital; 7) Improve the reputation of state research; 8) Increase innovation and market orientation; 9) Develop a general strategy; 10) Achieve research excellence; 11) S&T capacity development; 12) Highlight cooperation during diplomatic visits; 13) Protect security; 14) Change diplomatic relations; and 15) Promote public diplomacy. As seen on those lists, we could see that there are, in fact, different kinds of aspects in which each of it is important in conducting space technology cooperation, which may intimately be engaged in regionalism.

Regionalism
ASEAN is very identical to the concept of regionalism. Regionalism can be interpreted as relations between countries or interest groups that are well institutionalized in an area to achieve specific goals (Anwar, 1996). What is meant by these specific objectives is promoting the integration of the region wherein the implementation oftentimes the state plays a dominant role and is realized through certain organizations and engages in specific fields (Santos, 2008). The definition indicates that aspects of regional cooperation are comprehensive covering various fields, namely economic, social, political, and defense and security. So the concept of multilateralism cooperation arranged in a regional organization is very crucial to integrate and enhance cooperation between countries in a region (Weiss, 2010), for example, is cooperation within the ASEAN framework. The concept of regionalism in this study will explain the importance of space technology cooperation between ASEAN member states.

Space Diplomacy
Diplomacy in traditional terms is defined as the dialogue between countries (Schrogl, 2016). Whereas the term space diplomacy by the space community is defined as (Haro et al., 2016): 1. Ideas for formulating and implementing practical initiatives so that the interests of countries meet with each other in space. 2. The art of negotiation to coexist peacefully in space for the future of humanity.
Space Diplomacy can be interpreted as dialogue, negotiation in international cooperation, which is motivated by interests related to space. At present, many international collaborations are motivated by the importance of developing joint space technology, because the nature of space technology is high tech, high risk, and high money. Science & Technology has now played an important role in creating a globally connected modern society. In international affairs, diplomacy, technology, and economics are the most essential tools for any country. Historically, science and technology (S&T) have been one of the main currencies for exchange and dialogue between human society and sovereign states. In this modern era, it emerged as an essential instrument of techno-economic forces that will shape the changing dynamics of international relations and global affairs. Diplomacy is the main instrument of dialogue between countries. It is the art of negotiating to protect one's interests and promote one's influence in international affairs. For each sovereign country, both technology and diplomacy are essential tools for managing international relations, which in essence protect national security and project national power (Mallik, 2016, p. 7).
S&T plays a crucial role in building the dynamics of the balance of power between sovereign states. It offers alternative channels of engagement among countries that may have political differences so that it plays an essential role by influencing the dynamics of the balance of power between sovereign states. Advances in S&T often rely on international flows of people and ideas, and this is happening now more than ever. Overcoming the cold war, exchanges between scientific organizations and universities are essential channels for informal discussions on nuclear issues and other sensitive technologies. Different aspects of the role of science, technology and policy innovation, diplomacy, and international relations can be seen in three different dimensions of scientific diplomacy, namely (The Royal Society, 2010): 1. Science in Diplomacy -strengthening the contribution of science to foreign policy objectives. 2. Science for Diplomacy -uses S&T cooperation to improve relations between countries. 3. Diplomacy for Science (Diplomacy for Science) -facilitating international science collaboration.

Methods
This paper uses descriptive qualitative research methods. Qualitative research is one form of research that describes and analyzes human social reality (Pusbindiklat LIPI, 2017, p. 47). Meanwhile, descriptive research is research aimed at describing and describing and mapping facts based on a particular perspective or frame of mind (Mahmud, 2011, p. 100 (Nazir, 2003, p. 27).

ASEAN Science and Technology Development
ASEAN has played a central role in maintaining peace and security in the region for the past 50 years. As a platform for regional cooperation, ASEAN is one of the most successful examples in the world. ASEAN has become a significant channel for governments in Southeast Asia to overcome joint challenges and manage disputes among member states jointly. ASEAN has been described as a fulcrum where the Asia Pacific security, the political and economic architecture will be built. ASEAN has also become a channel for small and medium-sized countries in the region to enhance their negotiating positions with the world's major powers (Parks, et al., 2018). Until now, ASEAN's role in development has primarily been focused on (Parks et al., 2018, p. 4): 1. Economic integration -The ASEAN Secretariat and the ASEAN Economic Community (ASEC) have led a series of policy alignment and capacity development programs since 2002 to promote economic integration. Many dialogue partners have coordinated some of their regional and bilateral assistance to support this ASEAN-led initiative. The Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI) has also played a significant role in narrowing the development gap between the more developed and least developed ASEAN member states.
2. Cross-border challenges -the ASEAN Secretariat and relevant sectoral bodies have led many programs to address cross-border problems, including human trafficking, safe migration, infectious diseases, and cross-border haze, among others. 3. Building capacity -ASEAN sectoral bodies have used development cooperation for a wide range of capacity building programs, most of which focus on relevant government officials, includes regional workshops, consultations, and training, usually to support sectoral agency work plans and joint agendas.
The Bangkok Declaration which established the basis for the formation of ASEAN on 8 August 1967 recognized the urgency for the five-member states (i.e., Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) to engage in joint efforts to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region. Recognizing further that S&T is a necessary and indispensable tool for achieving this goal, an Ad hoc Committee for S&T was established. The first meeting was held in Jakarta, Indonesia, on April 27-29, 1970, to discuss ways to promote and intensify cooperation in S&T. Explicitly, the meeting agreed that ASEAN cooperation in S&T must be guided by the following objectives (ASEAN Secretariat, 2017b): a. It can be seen the activities that have been carried out related to space cooperation, which is accommodated in SCOSA. So it can be seen that most of the activities that have been and will be carried out are more related to the application of space technology, especially satellite technology and remote sensing, as well as cooperation between ASEAN member states and other countries outside ASEAN. Meanwhile, technology related to technology transfer in the construction of satellite, rocketry and aviation constellations seems not to have been initiated in this ASEAN space collaboration. So that in the future, cooperation related to the development of space technology can be one of the agendas that must be carried out.

The Space Technology Capabilities of ASEAN Member States
The space technology capabilities of ASEAN member states will be elaborated through the following indicators, namely: 1) National Space Agency/ Institutions related to Space Activities; 2) UN Treaties on Outer Space; 3) Member of United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPOUS); 4) Member of Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF); 5) Member of Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO); 6) National Space Policy/ Space Law; 7) Satellite Capability; 8) Remote Sensing Technology Capability; 9) Science & Atmosphere Capability; 10) Aeronautics Capability; and 11) Rocket Technology Capability.  (Noichim, 2010); (Radzi, 2015); (Sese, 2015); & (Subari, 2016); and based on author analysis) The space technology capabilities of ASEAN member states in table 3, which are described based on these indicators, illustrate that the development of ASEAN space technology has not yet been balanced. There are still gaps in technology development among ASEAN member states. The ability of space technology in ASEAN is still dominated by the pioneering countries of the establishment of ASEAN.
Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines are still the main ASEAN member states with the most capable space technology capabilities in the ASEAN region. However, variations in technological development between these countries also differ. Some developed flight technology, satellites, and rockets together. There are also those who only focus on developing satellite technology and remote sensing, and there are those who only focus on the development of the space industry.
This condition must also be considered as a basis for compiling so that it must be an essential concern in developing future space technology cooperation schemes. The involvement of countries in space organizations outside ASEAN must also be a matter of concern. ASEAN space technology cooperation can be a deterrence effect for other countries and space organizations. A stronger ASEAN space technology cooperation will make ASEAN not always dependent on other countries in developing space technology, not only be consumers of space technology but can play a role in the space industry as well.

Challenges and Opportunities Strengthening ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation
Space activities within the ASEAN framework have been included in the Sub-Committee on Space Application (SCOSA) as a sub-committee related to the use of space technology. Nevertheless, in the implementation of coordination between ASEAN member states in each SCOSA activity is still not running optimally. Space cooperation is still partial among ASEAN member states. The cooperation was also limited to the application of cooperation on space technology development. Associated with the development of space technology in terms of developing satellite launchers and satellite technology to be developed together has not been programmed. Therefore, related to the optimization of ASEAN space cooperation will be explained about the opportunities and challenges that must be faced to realize the ASEAN Space Cooperation as a container for the integration of space technology development in ASEAN that supports the ASEAN community integration.  (Verbiest, 2011); (Sarma, 2019); & based on author analysis) In the development of the international community, regional cooperation plays an important role. Regional cooperation can be defined as cooperation between countries in a particular region or a group of countries with the same political identity by establishing international organizations to serve the interests of member states such as economics, culture, and technology. The collaboration for the development of sustainable space among developing countries must be identified, and the benefits shared among the countries. In particular, there must be regional cooperation in geographically close countries, such as members of the ASEAN.
The benefits of such cooperation in exploration and use of space are numerous, including reducing the consumption of natural resources, increasing the distribution of work, the development and development of coordinated space knowledge and reducing competition among participating countries. Apart from various levels of economic, scientific, technological, and industrial development, there is regional space cooperation between ASEAN member states. This collaboration can be an effective way to stimulate the use of space technology applications and the development of space science and technology, and help bridge gaps in space science and technology knowledge among member states. This progress can also contribute to accelerating economic, cultural, and social growth and help developing countries skip the stages of development (Noichim, 2008, pp. 33-37).
International cooperation in space technology is beneficial for several countries to achieve common space science goals in the following fields (Mukherjee, 2018

Optimization of ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation
Based on the challenges and opportunities outlined above, the strategy to maximize ASEAN space technology cooperation can be carried out in the following ways, namely:

Conclusion
The concept of ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation is an embodiment of the concept of Space for Diplomacy, where space is used as a media to build and strengthen relations between ASEAN member states. In optimizing ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation, challenges, and opportunities, both internal and external of ASEAN, emerge. In general, the challenges faced in strengthening ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation, are due to gaps in space technology development among ASEAN member states, where there are no countries that excel in special technologies such as satellite technology and satellite launch rocket. Each ASEAN member states also has different interests in the development of space technology, that's makes partial offers of cooperation from other countries to ASEAN member states (offers of bilateral or trilateral cooperation) thereby reducing the focus of ASEAN regional space cooperation. The different interests can make unclear cooperation funding mechanisms and the most important challenge is because of the economic gaps between ASEAN member states. While the opportunities to strengthen ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation are based on the desire to realize the vision of the ASEAN Community. Furthermore, the existence of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 as a trigger for ASEAN member countries to develop their space technology. The space technology can finally be used to reach ASEAN SDGs. The development of space technology is also supported by the strategic position of the ASEAN region in the development of space technology (most ASEAN member states are in the Equatorial region), very suitable for the rocket technology, spacecraft, and satellite development.
Based on these opportunities and challenges, the main objects of space cooperation that can serve as guidelines in strengthening ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation, are cooperation in space technology, cooperation in space applications, cooperation in space environment utilization; and cooperation in space education. The 4 main objects of ASEAN Space Technology Cooperation will not only strengthen among ASEAN member states but also with regional and international space organizations and other countries that excel in space technology, which will support ASEAN space technology capabilities in facilitating and supporting the development and implementation of ASEAN space activities. ASEAN and its member states must work together to prepare and find the most appropriate and effective solutions to solve various problems that may arise with the strengthening of ASEAN Space Cooperation (Noichim, 2008). Making space as the focus of ASEAN cooperation is effective in supporting the achievement of SDGs in the Southeast Asia region and strengthening ASEAN's position as a more qualified regional association.